I can express our trouble in a different form by saying: “How can we know what the shadow is a shadow of?” ‒ ‒ ‒ The shadow would be some sort of portˇrait; and therefore I can restate our problem by asking: “What makes a portˇrait a portˇrait of Mr. N?” The answer which might first suggest itself is: “The similarity between the portˇrait and Mr. N”. This answer in fact shows what we had in mind when we talked
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of the shadow of a fact. It is quite clear, however, that similarity does not constitute our idea of a portait; for it is in the essence of this idea that it should make sense to talk of a good or a bad portait. In other words, it is essential that the shadow should be capable of representing things as in fact they are not.